MEIJI RESTORATION
The unspoken tolerance of homosexuality was the key concept of 20th-century Japan. However, at the time of the Meiji Restoration, Japan experienced more vocal criticisms of homosexual behaviour. After the opening of Japanese ports in 1854 under Commodore Perry, influences from Western morality began to take root, bolstered by the disapproval of Christian missionaries. The Japanese elite experienced a desire to "absorb Western learning in order to obtain the respect of Western nations" (Leupp, 202). Since homosexuality was considered 'abnormal' or 'shameful', the homophobia of the West infiltrated Japanese society, and same-sex relationships came to be viewed as uncivilised, or evidence of a lack of learning. There were calls in the late 19th century for the criminalisation of homosexuality, and for a period of about ten years (1873-83), consensual sex between men was punishable by imprisonment ("Queer"). There is evidence, however, of "same-sex fever" (男色熱) in the Meiji Period, particularly in schools. (Tanaka et al) With standardised education an integral part of the Meiji government's "Westernisation" process, close relationships between seniors and juniors at schools began to develop. This factor would impact the strong "homosocial" bonds that continue to this day.
Another factor that may have contributed to the decline in the acceptance of male-male sexual relationships was the collapse of the feudal system. Throughout the Tokugawa period, relationships were often defined in terms of status: older/younger brother; lord/vassal; samurai/"beloved retainer" (Leupp, 42). These bonds carried over into the modern period, in a somewhat diluted form, in the "homosocial" relationships outlined by Doi. (Jnanavira). Under the Tokugawa shogunate, the unity in Japan brought about a more peaceful society, and the bourgeoisie began to advance, and adopt practices of the samurai class. One aspect of this was a growing general acceptance of "male love", a concept hitherto limited to the upper strata of society. (Androphile)
Gary Leupp, in his study of Tokugawa Japan, describes the 'trickle-down' effect within Japanese society:
Aware of monastic and samurai traditions, men of common status in the Tokugawa period would naturally have regarded homosexual desire as normal and male-male sex as a permissible and attractive activity. (57)
Despite this fact, same-sex relationships in the Tokugawa period were often on par with, and existed alongside of, heterosexual relationships. With the growth of cities, often disproportionately populated by men, same-sex relationships were a viable option or a welcome alternative to heterosexual sex.
TOKUGAWA JAPAN
The growth of the bourgeoisie in large urban centres during the relatively stable Tokugawa period gave rise to a hitherto relatively unknown element: dansho (男娼) or male prostitution. Although never legalised--female prostitution was licensed in the mid-16th century--(Leupp, 65), male brothels and 'teahouses' flourished in Tokugawa cities, particularly in Kyoto, where young boys were said to be the most beautiful. For the first time in Japanese history, same-sex relationships took on strong elements of "sex for the sake of sex", as traditional bonds of loyalty took on a less important role:
For the merchants and artisans of Tokugawa cities, male-male sex became largely a commercial transaction devoid of the commitments required by earlier traditions of male homosexuality. (Leupp, 59)
This commercialisation of sex would have an impact on the negative views of homosexuality during the Meiji Period.
Development in the arts had influences on homosexual relationships, particularly in the Kabuki theatre. "Women's kabuki" was banned by the Tokugawa government and replaced by 'young men's kabuki" (若衆歌舞伎 - wakashu kabuki). Consequently, cross-dressing young boys or onna-gata (女形) portrayed female roles on the kabuki stage. According to Leupp "the homosexual appeal of the kabuki actor was...a brash, provocative sensuality that drove male (and female) spectators wild with desire." (130) Frequently, kabuki actors entered into loosely contractual arrangements with theatre-going townsmen, developing a patron-client type of relationship. Kabuki theatres and male brothels were often located in the same area of town, drawing a link between these two worlds. As the popularity of these actors spread, so did the ideas of androgyny and "gender ambiguity" (Leupp, 176-7), a factor that continues to affect Japanese perceptions of homosexuality as a sort of 'gender-bending'.
Many of the Tokugawa shogun had ongoing same-sex relationships with young boys in the courts. Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (ruled 1680-1709) is said to have been a nanshoku-zuki (男色好き)--interested almost exclusively in males, rather than females--and had sexual relationships "with more than one hundred handsome boys" (Leupp, 136). The tradition of samurai 'male-bonding' had developed during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, and lasted through the years of the Warring States.
SAMURAI TRADITION
A well-known example of samurai 'bonding' is Oda Nobunaga, one of Japan's most revered and powerful daimyo. He was killed in an ambush in 1582, along with his teenaged lover, Mori Panmaru. ("Queer") This is but one example in a long history of same-sex relationships between daimyo and their "beloved retainers". (Leupp, 42)
The love of the shogun has been referred to as "martial homosexuality" (Leupp, 27), developing out of relationships of fealty between warriors and their younger page-boys. Often, these lord-vassal relationships were valued above those between men and women, since dandoshi (男同士) or 'male bonding' extended to the loyalty of the sword-bearer, who would fight--and even die--for his lord. During this period, the Chinese characters 愛 (ai - love) and 忠 (chu - loyalty/fealty) were nearly interchangeable. (Tanaka et al) In exchange for loyalty, the younger partners received education and military training.
There is some evidence that the younger partner in these relationships assumed a 'feminine appearance'--a possible precursor to the androgyny of the later Tokugawa period. Furthermore, the importance of same-sex relationships may have flourished, in part, due to the lack of female influence in the battlefield. Nevertheless, many of the lord-vassal relationships among the samurai were highly valued, and exhibited strong commitments and bonds between the men. Furthermore, they built on a long history of same-sex traditions that existed in monastic communities.
MONASTIC LOVE
"By the time of increased samurai ascendancy from the thirteenth century, there was already a well-established homoerotic tradition in Japanese monasteries in which boys, not women, were constructed as fitting objects for adult male desire, a tradition which was well suited to the masculine ideals of an increasingly militaristic society."(Jnanavira)
Even before its adoption by the samurai, male-male love was a common practice in the Buddhist monasteries. Sexual relationships between a monk and his acolyte were widespread. These acolytes or 'boy-lovers' were also known as chigo (稚児), and a collection of stories known as chigo monogatari ("acolyte stories") details many of these relationships. "Though the Buddhist code of discipline prohibited monks from any sexual activity, many monks felt that this did not apply to same-sex relationships. This inspired art and literature centered on the young male ideal and the love which sprang between monks and youths." ("Homosexuality in Japan")
Although chastity among monks is one of the precepts of Buddhism, in Heian era Japan this came to be understood as sex with women. Sex between monks and their acolytes came to be viewed as the 'beautiful way' (美道 - bido), and the idea developed that homosexuality was "a reasonable and forgivable compromise between heterosexual involvements and complete sexual abstinence" (Leupp 35). Because Japanese Buddhism often focused on the intentions or outcomes of acts, rather than the acts themselves, same-sex involvements could be identified as a way of communicating with the Buddha, and of creating deeper spiritual bonds. (Jnanavira)
The prevalence of monk-acolyte relationships in monastic communities, particularly in the Buddhist centres of Mt. Koya and Mt. Hiei, is said to have originated with the monk Kukai (空海: 774-835), also known as Kobo Daishi, who brought back Buddhist teachings from his travels in China to found the Shingon sect. Folk tales accrediting Kukai with the beginnings of shudo (衆道) or 'The Way of the Young' did not emerge until the 11th century, but Kukai's insistence on celibacy makes such assumptions questionable. However, the fact that China itself had a long history of revered same-sex relationships suggests that such beliefs may have been imported from the mainland. At the same time, as Buddhism blended with the existing Japanese indigenous beliefs, so did the acceptance of homosexuality. ("Kukai")
ANCIENT BELIEFS and SHINTO
The indigenous religion of Japan, Shinto (神道 - the Way of the Gods), has a very 'sex-positive ideology', with a strong focus on procreation and nature. (Jnanavira) Without established doctrine or a canon of religious texts, Shinto is an adaptable religion, which blends easily with new beliefs, such as Buddhism, and traditions. Cult-like phallus worship was a major element of ancient Shinto, yet another example of the openness toward sex and sexuality. Because there is little documentation of early Shintoism, it is impossible to identify positive or negative views toward homosexuality. It may be argued that, since Shinto's focus is on fertility, procreation and family/community, homosexuality might have been viewed as non-productive and, therefore, unwelcome. However, there are no evident proscriptions against same-sex relationships; even in the most conservative branches of modern Shinto, homosexuality is not viewed as a 'sin', but more as a potential threat to tradition. On the other hand, the 1999 'marriage' of two gay men at a Shinto shrine ("Homosexuality and Shinto") suggests that even such conservative views may be on the wane.
CONCLUSION
Current attitudes toward homosexuality in Japan are largely stereotypical, but hold none of the hostility or homophobia encountered in many countries and cultures. Based on personal experience, feelings among Japanese about homosexuality range from mild disinterest to mild curiosity. Young women, in particular, are apt to enjoy the company of gay male friends, accepting homosexuality without particular questions about morality or abnormality. Male-male bonds, while not necessarily erotic, are common in schools and in the workplace; 'skinship' is a common phrase among school-aged boys, referring to the physical touch with close friends, an essential element of these relationships.
Monastic, samurai and bourgeois traditions, all of which had a strong homoerotic element, "never produced a strong current of hostility to male-male sex." (Leupp, 94) Consequently, Japanese religious and social culture has no innate rhetoric opposing same-sex relationships. Even recent negativism toward homosexuality is more a reaction to outside forces; attitudes shifted to suit the ideals of encroaching Western culture, in an effort to appear more refined, or simply more 'modern'. Even arguments against homosexuality--that, for example, gay relationships do not produce offspring--tend to be much more practical than moral.
One further consideration is the Japanese notion that 'gay' is nothing but a behaviour, a pastime engaged in outside the strictures of everyday life. In addition, because there is little active discrimination against gays, there seems to be less inclination to fight for gay rights. (McClelland, 30) However, social rights groups such as Occur continue to rally for the cause of the gay community.
While media-inspired misconceptions continue to dominate Japan, political awareness has grown and steps toward greater openness and equality for gay men and lesbians are being made. Even the 'unnaturalness' of homosexuality, previously cited by Shinto conservatives, is being dismissed by scientific evidence to the contrary. Throughout history, Japan has shown itself to be an adaptable nation, willing to make changes for the sake of progress. Perhaps, then, it is only a matter of time before Japan recognises, accepts and--as in the past--embraces the notion of homosexuality.
